The Perestroika Reform And Glasnost Policy Programs

Under Mikhail Gorbachev the Soviet Union underwent massive social, political and economic reform that drifted away from communist ideology and this ultimately lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union and failure of communism in Eastern Europe. This essay will focus on how the Perestroika reform and Glasnost policy programs as well as other external and internal pressures contributed to the failure of communism under Gorbachev. The aim of the Perestroika and Glasnost reforms was to restructure and strengthen the Soviet political and economic system and provide more freedom and democracy within the Soviet Union while strengthening Communism. However, these changes had achieved exactly what they aimed to prevent when they were first elaborated and led to the failure of communism and collapse of the Soviet Union. While focusing on the policies this essay will also focus on the major increase in nationalism that occurred in the Soviet Republics as a result of the Glasnost. External pressu re from the western world was also a factor and the role that the United States and the Ronald Reagan administration played in the downfall of communism under Gorbachev will be examined. The essay will also discuss how the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the 1991 Coup d’à ©tat led to the failure of the policies and failure of communism. Perestroika translates to â€Å"restructuring† and was a policy introduced by Gorbachev which intended to reform the baseline of the Soviet economy in an attempt toShow MoreRelatedGlasnost and the Political Context of Gorbachevs Reforms1674 Words   |  7 PagesDid Gorbachev implement Glasnost with the aim of turning the Soviet Union into a democratic capitalist economy? A: Plan of the Investigation Did Gorbachev implement Glasnost with the aim of turning the Soviet Union into a democratic capitalist economy? Thesis: Glasnost was a means to achieve Gorbachevs broader political reforms, however, these reforms did not include the installation of a democratic, capitalist economy. At the time Gorbachev implemented Glasnost, he intended for the CommunistRead MoreEssay On Perestroika And Glasnost766 Words   |  4 Pagesproblems, Gorbachev implemented a reform program that consisted of two overarching concepts, perestroika and glasnost. Perestroika entailed the restructuring of economic policies and promised to repair the market system to mirror the success of other capitalist countries. Glasnost, or openness in discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the Soviet Union, was the cornerstone of perestroika and allowed its citizens freedom of expression. Critical of these reforms, Nina Andreyeva attacked his revisionsRead MoreGorbachev s Impact On The Soviet Union941 Words   |  4 PagesCommunist Party, bringing with him a wave of reform. His reform appeared in the form of a dual program, â€Å"perestroika† (to restructure) and â€Å"glasnost†(openness), changing the Soviet Union’s domestic governmental policies, economic practices, and international relations- for Gorbachev felt that his goals to improve the Soviet Union’s economy couldn t be done without reforming the political and social structures as well. Gorbachev hoped that his reforms would reorganize and revive the USSR’s economyRead MoreMikahil Gorbachev: A Brief Biography Essay1529 Words   |  7 PagesMikhail Gorbachev, a rising leader in the Soviet Union, implemented many reforms throughout his reign as general secretary of the Communist Party from 1985-1990, and president from 1990-1991. Born on March 2, 1931, Gorbachev was raised by a family of Russian peasants. In 1946, at the young age of fifteen, he joined the Komsomol (Young Communist League). After provin g to be a promising member, he enrolled in Moscow Sate University and became a member of the Communist Party. Mikhail Gorbachev heldRead MoreThe Objective Of Perestroika As A Leader Of The Soviet Union ( Class )958 Words   |  4 PagesThe objective of Perestroika was to further refine socialism in order to meet the demands of Soviet consumers. This reform allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like reforms. Glasnost refers to openness to public knowledge and Gorbachev used this term as a generalized appeal for increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union (Class). In other words, glasnost would enable a forum of criticism and self-criticismRead MoreThe Berlin Wall Of World War II1626 Words   |  7 Pagesbest way to describe the 1970s and 80s. Signs of a thaw in the Cold War started to occur in Germany when Willy Brandt was elected Chancellor of West Germany in 1969. Once he was in office Brandt began â€Å"to formulate a new departure for German foreign policy, a new approach to Germany’s relations with the Soviet bloc: Ostopolitik.† Brand made history for being the first German leader to recognize a border with Poland. During World War II Germany had previously taken land that had belonged Poland, byRead MoreEssay about Gorbachev757 Words   |  4 Pagesoccur if Communism is to survive. He begins a program called Perestroika which was the organizational restructuring of the Soviet economy and government apparatus. Gorbachev discovers that this change will depend on other changes, among others a more tolerant and open political environment , more public influence over governmental and military institutions. This called for major long term change of the political system. 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The forces of reform unleashed by President Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid 1980amp;#8217;s generated a democratic movement. amp;#8220;Mr. Gorbach ev may be revered for the democratic forces he unleashed- his policies of perestroika, or reconstructing, and glasnost, or openness. However, his failure to put food on Soviet tables and his reluctance to move boldly on economic reforms doomed him to be a failure; (Sieff). His economic policies threw his country into even more turmoilRead MoreLegacy and Leadership: Mikhail Gorbachev Essay1282 Words   |  6 PagesMikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev showed legacy and leadership when he launched a program of political, economical, and social reform for the Soviet Union. He changed and influenced many people lives positively with his reformations, and started a â€Å"revolution† that later seemed to get out of his grasp, causing the end of the Soviet Union. In 1985, Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev became the general secretary of the USSR, (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) also known as the Soviet Union. That is when

Management And Leadership Styles Of An Organization

Management and Leadership styles In the case study, manager has resolved this through leadership styles of approaches in regards to the values and principles of an organisational behaviour used in the industry. According to (Stephen, 2006) a leader that engages the whole person’s paradigm of mind, body, spirit and heart get things done through people but not husbanding resources and technology. There are many definitions of leadership and each stresses the importance of a leader to influence and inspire subordinates. (Finkelman, 2012) stated that specifically defined leadership in clinical practices as â€Å"direct involvement in clinical care while constantly influencing others to improve the care they provide†. This leadership definition is relevant to the case study through the management approached to the scenario. Health care employees encounter stressful situations daily as their role involves dealing with human lives. To maintain the continuity and excellent services of this workforce, there has to be a leadership that understands their situation and provides a supportive role (Finkelman, 2012). Disability industry is no exception and in any case, needs better leadership as the health care of the clients depends on it and makes most decisions based on the recommendations from their management results. This means that disability industry does not need to get it wrong. This article explores critical analysis of transformational, managerial grid framework (nature of work),Show MoreRelatedPersonal Leadership Style. Every Organization Has A Management1105 Words   |  5 PagesPersonal Leadership Style Every organization has a management team, with the success the organization in the hands of these leaders and managers. How the organization is run is generally determined by the executive leaders and filtered down through a series of positions on an organizational chart. In hospital healthcare, at the end of the chart is the care provided by the nursing staff. Leadership styles are varied and there is no correct theory, however every leader must recognize which theory theyRead MoreLeaders Are Born Or Made?1036 Words   |  5 Pagesquestion are numerous. The terms leadership and management have become increasingly prevalent in today’s workplace. They are often used in place of each other and in some cases the terms leadership and management are used identically to each other. This has not always been the case. Leadership has a long history that dates as far back as biblical times. According to Bass, â€Å"it is one of the world’s oldest preoccupations† (Bas s, 1990). 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Any successful changes that happen within an organization are heavily dependent on the effectiveness of the leadership of the organization. Additionally, this style fosters a growth for new and upcoming leaders in the individuals within the organization. Transformational leadership is a well-known approach that hasRead MoreWhy Leaders Are Born Or Made?1337 Words   |  6 Pagesquestion are numerous. The terms leadership and management have become increasingly prevalent in today’s workplace. They are often used in place of each other and in some cases the terms leadership and management are used identically to each other. This has not always been the case. Leadership has a long history that dates as far back as biblical times. According to Bass, â€Å"it is one of the world’s oldest preoccupations† (Bass, 1990). On the other hand, management as it relates to the workplaceRead MoreLeadership Culture : A Review Essay1674 Words   |  7 Pages Leadership Culture: A Review of the Literature Dallas Benson Liberty University â€Æ' Abstract Culture represents the informal set of attitudes, beliefs, goals, norms understandings, and values that provide both a sense of identity and purpose to an organization. Research into the influences of management on corporate culture include insights from a variety of fields to include business, economics, politics, psychology, and sociology. This review examines the literature on organization designRead MoreEssay about Participative Leadership Style1260 Words   |  6 PagesParticipative Leadership Style In providing leadership guidance to employees with the purpose to motive and influence employees, I would use the Participative Leadership Style. The Participative Leadership style addresses the improvements for increasing the productivity of employees as well as providing satisfactory to the employees. A leader can certainly appreciate the Participative Leadership Style because it is orientated to empower the employees by encouraging participationRead MoreA Tale Of Two Nursing Home Administrators Management And Leadership Principles1564 Words   |  7 PagesA Tale of Two Nursing Home Administrators’ Management and Leadership Principles The continuously changing long-term care environment requires health care administrators to protect the interests of residents they care for while effectively managing and leading their healthcare teams. For leaders, the path to being a great one is not an easy one because, there will always be the good times, the bad times and sometimes there will be terrible times. The only thing that will set a great leader apartRead MoreThe Topic of Management1152 Words   |  5 PagesManagement is a term that was derived from the French word menager, meaning â€Å"to use carefully,† and the Italian word maneggiare, meaning â€Å"to handle,† and was originally applied to horse training. Contemporary management is an ongoing process by which managers create, direct and maintain organizations through coordinated human effort to ensure that their organization’s resources are used appropriately to attain the highest level of performance and productivity. It is the fundamental in tegrating processRead MoreLeadership As An Organization Directly Impacts The Employees And Business1186 Words   |  5 PagesHaving effective leadership in an organization directly impacts the employees and business. A leader is a person who can bring a group of people together in an effective manner to complete a specific task and or goal. I feel that good leadership is that backbone of an organization. In my professional life I have worked with a variety of mangers that were very different in there approach in management. With the different styles of leading a group or individual it can at times be effective and

Sports Vs Women Essay Research Paper Sports free essay sample

Sports Vs. Women Essay, Research Paper Sports are a really of import portion of the American society. Within athleticss heroes are made, ends are set and dreams are lived. The media makes all these things possible by making promotion for the lifting stars of today. Within society today, the media has downplayed the function of the adult female within athleticss. When the American people think of adult females in athleticss, they think of ice skating, field hockey and diving. Peoples do non acknowledge that adult females have the potency to play any athletics that a adult male can play, with equal accomplishment, if non better. Right now in some portion of America, there is a adult females who aspires to play hockey for the New York Rangers, but what she does non recognize is that the media will non give a positive backup to her attempt. This negative coverage will shatter her dream within a affair of seconds. Womans today have found the strength that drives people to play athleticss. One of the most recent electrifying events that shows adult females showing their love for the game, irrespective of which game, is when Brandi Chastain tore her New Jersey off after the United States adult females? s association football squad won the Women? s World Cup concluding. After this unbelievable show of triumph, the media put Ms. Chastain? s face all over the universe. She was a characteristic on Sportscenter on ESPN and she was on every intelligence broadcasts for a solid hebdomad. But this was non the biggest achievement, Brandi made the screen for Sports Illustrated the undermentioned month. For winning the World Cup the adult females each received a amount of $ 12,500, whereas if the work forces won they would hold each received a s um $ 388,000. This event besides influenced situation comedies. In a March 2000 episode of the telecasting situation comedy, Third Rock From the Sun, on of the characters makes a direct quotation mark in relation to the excessive show of victory. The character was quoted to state, ? She is about one end off from rending her shirt off. ? Since the World Cup, taking your shirt off is something that people relate with adult females association footballs and its participants. Coverage of another female jock, Laila Ali, was due to grounds other than rending off her shirt. The ground that Ali was covered was due to the fact that she is a bequest. She is a the girl of the celebrated Muhammed Ali. Laila, 22, started to package and seek to follow the celebrated foot stairss of her celebrated male parent. The media coverage of this up and coming female pugilist is phenomenal. In her first battle, Laila? Madam Butterfly? Ali, knocked out her opposition, April Fowler, in 31 seconds. The chief focal point of her celebrity is in direct relation with the celebrity of her male parent and his reign of her celebrated male parent. Laila celebrity has brought a whole new visible radiation to the universe of female pugilism. Other former heavyweight title-holders, George Foreman and Joe Frazier, have encouraged their girls to take part in this barbarous athletics. These adult females who are successful in the concern universe, working an lawyer and a nail salon proprietor, are really interested in seeking to portion the limelight with their celebrated opposite number male parents. The media has deemed adult females packaging as an boisterous show of maleness. Labeling adult females who participate in this athletics as a butch or tribade. Since packaging is such a barbarous athletics, some parts of the media have labeled the athletics as an act of unneeded raggedness with a strong undertone of un-called for force. Throughout clip adult females have gone through a batch within the universe of athleticss. In 1999, Newsweek, published an article sketching the? Leaps and Bounds? the adult females have overcome to be where they are today. The events outlined in this article include day of the months which have made history such as in 1920 when the first adult female competed in the Olympics and won three gold decorations and 1965 when Donna De Varona became the first adult females to a sports announcer on web telecasting. One of the most of import stats within this article lies in the fact that in adult females athleticss have taken off so much that in 1996 the WNBA, the first adult females? pro hoops conference is launched. One of the most of import public paperss was passed in 1972. Title IX, aimed to supply equality within the athleticss universe. The chief intent of this papers was to censor the sexual favoritism in federally funded school plans, which included the athleticss plans. The current statistic of misss playing athleticss in high school was 1 in 27. In 1996, 1 in 3 misss in the United States was involved in some kind of federally funded and in private funded athleticss activity. Jon Alter, a NBC News subscriber, is a strong truster in Title IX. ? Many American are larning that the victory of adult females? s squad athleticss is the consequence of something called Title IX. ? In fact, work forces have noticed the alteration in the media attending much more than they have been gien recognition for. Even the president of the United States, Bill Clinton, enjoyed the USA triumph at the World Cup. The adult females? s World Cup triumph had more fans watching than Game 7 of the 1999 Stanley Cup Finals. With 90,000 fans present for the event and another 657,000 tuned in on ESPN at place, the event drew monolithic sums of promotion. The dark that the game was replayed, it drew more attending than baseball? s All-Star Game that was aired the same dark. One of the most surprising rises in adult females? s athleticss has seen in the field of playground ball. In the old ages past, playground ball has been a female dominated athletics with conferences around the state. In Fairfield County, Connecticut, the Brakettes are a fable. The adult females who participate in this fast pitch athletics have no fright of acquiring dirty or agony from the intolerable hurts that this athletics puts them through. The adult females who come out and play this athletics are at that place for the ground that is missing within athleticss today. This ground is why athleticss originated in the first topographic point. Athletes participate in athleticss for one ground? the love of the game. Within professional athleticss today, the love of the game has been lost. We see that participants are no longer on the playing field for the feeling of triumph, but are out at that place for the seven figure wage cheque that they receive for giving half of the twelvemonth to their athletics. This is the beauty that is captured by the media. The media covers the pureness that adult females? s athleticss still holds. Women take part in athleticss for the love of the game, non because they will convey place 1000000s of dollars making it. Selling has besides been a strong clasp of adult females? s athleticss late. With Nike commercials having Mia Hamm, a female association football star, governing your telecasting, you can non lose the dozenss of immature misss featuring their USA association football New Jerseies while they kick around a association football ball in the park. Although the limelight has non yet been removed off marketing male-associated athleticss, telecasting advertisement of adult females jocks and their athleticss has greatly increased in the past twosome of old ages. With all of the craze comes the birth of something that has been tied to athleticss since the beginning. Heroes. The young person of America has dreamed of the twenty-four hours that they will be able to step up to the home base at Shea Stadium, stand following to the Green Monster, or hover over the line of scrimmage. Work forces have ever had athleticss heroes of the same sex to look up to. There is non a adult male alive who at one point in their life has non pretended like his was hitting a homerun off Roger Clemens or catching a base on balls thrown by Joe Montana. Now adult females have the chance to hit on a base on balls from Mia Hamm or run following to Jackie Joyner-Kersey. These adult females have provided themselves as positive function theoretical accounts for the young person of today. As quoted in Business Week, adult females have? few Leagues of their own. ? The American Basketball League was forced to turn up after the telecasting webs turned down all offers to air the games. On the other manus, the National Football League was being offered 17 million dollars to for their rights to be televised. The adult females? s hoops conference was non offered any money, but had to offer to pay the webs to aerate their games. Due to the fact that the ABA could non even pay to hold their games televised it seemed that the ABA? had excessively much ruddy and non plenty green. ? The WBNA is tagged as a? blowout hit? due to the fact that it is the first adult females? s athletics to subscribe a trade with a major web to aerate their games. In 1999, media coverage up for the conference every bit good as evaluations, while the attending for the games is up 12 per centum. The WBNA commissioner believes that the lone manner to hold a successful conference is based on one individual lone component. ? You need Television, Television, Television? national Television. That breeds credibleness with fans. ? The WBNA dramas in the summer so that they do non hold to vie with the NBA, NFL, NHL, or NCAA for the airtime that is required to run a successful conference. Sean McManus, president of CBS Sports, believes that there is small room for adult females? s athleticss on today? s web? s. ? Advertiser? s are non convinced that the manner to make adult females is through adult females? s athleticss. A batch more adult females watch the World Series than the WBNA. ? McManus believes that the whole adult females? s athleticss motion is still in its early phases and will necessitate serious room to turn. Other athleticss squads that were scheduled to subscribe web trades include the Women? s Professional Hockey League ( WPHL ) the National Soccer Alliance ( NSA ) and the Women? s Pro Fastpitch ( WPF ) . The WPHL was scheduled to get down in the winter of 1999 with four squads in Quebec, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. This conference was to get down with a 2.5 million dollar budget. There were 20 participants with signed letters of purpose, six of which were Olympians. The tickets were priced at five dollars a piece and the maximal wage for a participant was $ 21,000. This conference neer took of and the webs dismissed so wholly. The NHL is now working on get downing on programs for a adult females? s conference. The NSA was supposed to get down in 1997. They had a committedness from 12 Olympians including American star, Mia Hamm. This conference besides neer kicked off because there was ill will due to the concern that the NSA would interfere with Women? s World Cup Soccer. The playground ball conference, WPF, was backed by AT A ; T Wireless and had six squads set up to get down drama in 1997. The six squads were from provinces such as Florida, Georgia and North Carolina. The planned salary cap for the full squad was a mere $ 25,000. The managers would drive the coachs and the participants would remain at fly-by-night hotel suites. They played one twelvemonth and went insolvents in November of 1999. Sometimes it is non money that decides the media coverage which adult females? s athleticss receive. Henry Freeman, who was a athleticss editor, increased the sum of coverage that the LPGA received. This was excepted, but no one knew the ground that Freeman had for endorsing the LPGA so strongly. It all came out when a local pro uncovered her relationship with the web? athleticss editor from USA Today. Although Freeman increased coverage to delight his friend, the promotion helped to turn out record interrupting attending for LPGA events. Gene Policinski, managing editor for USA Today, points out that 25 to 30 per centum of the readers of USA Today are adult females. He besides points out that adult females? s athleticss drama are 2nd to what he calls the? Big Three? which include work forces? s baseball, hoops and football. Libby King, who works for ESPN, states that 326

Theory of Spontaneous Origin and Biogenesis Essay Example

Theory of Spontaneous Origin and Biogenesis Paper INTRODUCTION Robert. C. Gallagher once said: â€Å"Change is inevitable- except from a vending machine. † â€Å"Change† is the word the practically governs our world today. Everything is slowly and gradually changing, new technologies and opportunities boosting everywhere. But the underlying question which we all wishfully choose to ignore is â€Å"All the changes happening is for good only? † Ellen Glasgow once said: â€Å"All change is not growth, as all movement is not forward. † Such are the changes going on in the world which are definitely not for good. They are changes like floods, famines, earthquakes and many more natural disasters. Now it feels as though our Mother Earth is mocking at us and trying to teach us an important lesson as though how does it feel if we were tortured. If we were inflicted upon pain the same way we did to her. In all one thought does occur to all of us that is the world really ending? Are we going back to where it all started? But one more question is to be asked and it is WHERE did all this start? WHERE did earth come from? HOW did the life originate? HOW did we come to life? Some of the truth and myths of this â€Å"ORIGIN OF LIFE† Is further discussed in this project. Theory of spontaneous origin We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Spontaneous Origin and Biogenesis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Spontaneous Origin and Biogenesis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Spontaneous Origin and Biogenesis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Introduction Charles Darwins theory of evolution on the origin of life proposes that some four billion years ago, inanimate chemicals developed completely by chance into highly complex, living, single-celled organisms. This process of life coming from non-life is called spontaneous generation. According to the theory, a single-celled organism eventually evolved into all the complex life forms on earth in a relentless struggle for resources. Every evolutionary theory of life’s origins is based on spontaneous generation. The evolutionary development of life on earth is commonly depicted as an evolutionary tree. If life did arise spontaneously and then evolve into increasingly complex life forms, then spontaneous generation represents the trunk of that evolutionary tree and the branches are the various species that evolved from these earlier forms. If the origin of life cannot be shown to be plausible by the interaction of matter, random chance, energy and time then the existen ce of an evolutionary tree is a dubious proposition at best. Without a trunk there can be no tree. Without spontaneous generation there can be no evolution. First Call The notion that life could arise from inanimate, non-living matter is not a recent idea. During the dark ages, people speculated that rats and flies arose spontaneously from garbage because they mysteriously appeared when garbage was left out. Others had noticed that when meat and broths were left exposed they became covered with maggots and microorganisms. These observations led some to believe that these life forms arose suddenly and spontaneously from non-living, inanimate matter. Louis Pasteur entered the debate in 1862 when he published the results of his experiments on the spontaneous generation of microorganisms in broths. Using glass flasks, Pasteur showed that previously boiled broths remained uncontaminated with microorganisms unless the neck of the flask was broken. Broken flasks quickly teemed with life as the broths became cloudy. He proved that microorganisms were transported through the air to the broth and not generated from the broth itself. The work of Pasteur seemingly ended the debate on the question of the sudden, spontaneous origin of life. By the end of the nineteenth century, the majority of scientists believed that spontaneous generation was not possible. Loyal Darwinists, however, insisted on spontaneous generation, recognizing that it was the foundation upon which evolutionary theory rests. Ernst Haeckel, one of the chief proponents of Darwinism, stated in 1876: If we do not accept the hypothesis of spontaneous generation, then at this one point in the history of evolution we must have recourse to the miracle of a supernatural creation. Reheated The spontaneous generation debate heated up again in 1924 when Russian biochemist, I. A. Oparin proposed that life had arisen from simpler molecules on the lifeless earth under much different atmospheric conditions than exist today. However, instead of life arising suddenly, as previous spontaneous generation theories proposed, Oparin believed that it occurred over a very long period of time. In 1929 English biologist J. B. S. Haldane published a paper in which he proposed that ultraviolet light, acting on a primitive atmosphere containing water, ammonia and methane produced oceans with the consistency of a hot dilute soup containing the building blocks of life. In the nineteenth century Ernst Haeckel argued that although spontaneous generation was not observable under the current conditions on earth, it did take place in the past under different chemical conditions. Oparin and Haldane made the first serious proposals regarding those conditions. In 1952 Harold Urey noted that most of the planets in our solar system, except earth, have an atmosphere which contains little or no free oxygen. Furthermore, Urey knew that the building blocks of life are quickly destroyed (oxidized) if they are exposed to an environment containing oxygen. Therefore, he concluded that spontaneous generation must have occurred on the early earth with an atmosphere consisting mainly of hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water vapor, but little or no molecular oxygen. Lightning, volcanic eruptions, sunlight, and deep oceanic volcanic vents are among the energy sources proposed to stimulate the necessary chemical reactions. It was presumed that the building blocks of life were made in the atmosphere and then gradually fell to earth eventually accumulating in the primeval ocean. Despite absolutely no geological evidence for the existence of this primeval soup the Oparin-Haldane-Urey theories became scientific dogma. These foundational assumptions have provided the framework for the modern theory of evolution for the last several decades. Another Atmosphere The atmospheric conditions proposed by Oparin, Haldane and Urey were radically different from what exists today. Because oxygen destroys the chemical building blocks of life, they speculated that the early earth had an oxygen-free atmosphere. However, in the last few decades, evidence has surfaced that has convinced most atmospheric scientists that the early atmosphere contained abundant oxygen. In the 1970’s Apollo 16 astronauts discovered that water is broken down into oxygen and hydrogen gas in the upper atmosphere when it is bombarded by ultraviolet radiation. This process, called photo dissociation, is an efficient process which would have resulted in the production of large quantities of oxygen in a relatively short time. Studies by the astronauts revealed that this process is probably a major source of oxygen in our current atmosphere. The assumption of an oxygen-free atmosphere has also been rejected on theoretical grounds. The ozone layer around planet earth consists of a thin but critical blanket of oxygen gas in the upper atmosphere. This layer of oxygen gas blocks deadly levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without oxygen in the early atmosphere, there could have been no ozone layer over the early earth. Without an ozone layer, all life on the surface of planet earth would face certain death from exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation. Furthermore, the chemical building blocks of proteins, RNA and DNA, would be quickly annihilated because ultraviolet radiation destroys their chemical bonds. It doesn’t matter if these newly formed building blocks are in the atmosphere, on dry ground, or under water. So evolutionists have a major dilemma. The chemical building blocks of life would be destroyed if oxygen was present, and they would be destroyed if it wasn’t! This catch 22 has been noted by evolutionist and molecular biologist Michael Denton: What we have then is a sort of ‘Catch 22’ situation. If we have oxygen we have no organic compounds, but if we don’t we have none either. Even if the building blocks of life could survive the effects of intense ultraviolet radiation and form life spontaneously, the survival of any subsequent life forms would be impossible in the presence of such heavy ultraviolet light. Ozone must be present to protect any surface life from the deadly effects of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Finally, the assumption that there was no oxygen in the early atmosphere is not borne out by the geologic evidence. Geologists have discovered evidence of abundant oxygen content in the oldest known rocks on earth. Again, Michael Denton: Ominously, for believers in the traditional organic soup scenario, there is no clear geochemical evidence to exclude the possibility that oxygen was present in the Earth’s atmosphere soon after the formation of its crust. All of this evidence supports the fact that there was abundant oxygen on the early earth. However, with or without oxygen, evolution is in a no-win situation. Spontaneous generation could not have occurred either with oxygen—or without it! Another Ocean During the last two decades, the notion of a primordial soup has not fared too well either. Studies of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation, and the dilutional effect of a large body of water, have convinced many scientists that the ocean could not have developed into the hot dilute soup that was envisioned by Darwin, Oparin, and Haldane. Oparin envisioned the production of cellular building blocks in the atmosphere as a result of lightning. Once produced, these chemicals would theoretically build up in the primordial oceans and combine to form the first living systems. However, it has been estimated that it would take up to two years for amino acids to fall from the atmosphere into the ocean. This is a huge problem because even small amounts of ultraviolet radiation would destroy the building blocks before they reached the oceans. Furthermore, as we saw earlier, lack of ozone would further expedite this destruction. A problem seldom noted by textbooks is that the chemical reactions that create the building blocks of life are reversible. That is, the same energy sources that cause the formation of the building blocks of life will also destroy those same building blocks unless they are removed from the environment where they were created. In fact, the building blocks of life are destroyed even more efficiently than they are created. These problems have convinced researchers that the idea of a primordial soup is quite unlikely. Michael Denton comments on the lack of evidence for the primordial soup: Rocks of great antiquity have been examined over the past two decades and in none of them has any trace of abiotically produced organic compounds been found†¦Considering the way the pre-biotic soup is referred to in so many discussions of the origin of life as an already established reality, it comes as something of a shock to realize that there is absolutely no positive evidence for its existence. Equilibrium There is one other hurdle that must be successfully cleared if the evolutionist’s scenario on the origin of life is to have credibility. This is the problem of chemical equilibrium. In any broth or solution, there is the tendency for the materials to become evenly distributed with time. This tendency is called the development of equilibrium. For example, if a drop of red dye is put into a container of water the dye particles gradually disperse throughout the solution until the entire solution turns a dilute red color. The larger the volume of the solvent (i. e. , the water in the dye example), the more dilute will be the solution once the dye particles have become evenly distributed. This dilutional effect is irreversibly tied to time. As time advances, the dye particles become evenly distributed until the solution reaches a state of chemical equilibrium. Again the chemical reactions leading to the formation of DNA and proteins are reversible. This means that the building blocks of DNA and proteins are broken off of the chain just as easily as they are added. Consequently, the building blocks of life, if they survived the effects of oxygen and UV radiation, would constantly be combining and coming apart in the primordial soup. This combining and coming apart of chemical building blocks proceeds until a state of equilibrium is reached. In the case of amino acids and nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and proteins will be predominantly unbounded when the solution is at equilibrium. Since the natural tendency for the building blocks of life is to disperse and remain un-bonded, the question evolutionists must answer is how did the building blocks of life become bonded and stay bonded in a primordial soup which is steadily progressing towards equilibrium? When confronted with the problem of equilibrium, most evolutionists will appeal to the magic ingredient of time. Nobel Laureate George Wald attempted to explain: Time is in fact the hero of the plot. Given so much time the impossible becomes possible, the possible probable, and the probable virtually certain. One has only to wait: Time itself performs the miracles. However, Dr. Blum, who is an evolutionist himself, points out that Wald’s faith in the miraculous ingredient of time is mere wishful thinking. Prolonged time periods, he asserts, actually worsen the dilemma: I think if I were rewriting this chapter [on the origin of life] completely, I should want to change the emphasis somewhat. I should want to play down still more the importance of the great amount of time available for highly improbable events to occur. One may take the view that the greater the time elapsed the greater should be the approach to equilibrium, the most probable state, and it seems that this ought to take precedence in our thinking over the idea that time provides the possibility for the occurrence of the highly improbable. According to Dr. Blum, the magic bullet of time does not increase the likelihood that chains of DNA or proteins will form by chance chemistry. In fact, increasing the time factor actually ensures that any primordial soup would consist of predominantly unbonded amino acids and nucleotides! The Odds During the last several decades a number of prestigious scientists have attempted to calculate the mathematical probability of the random-chance origin of life. The results of their calculations reveal the enormity of the dilemma faced by evolutionists. Dr. Blum estimated the probability of just a single protein arising spontaneously from a primordial soup. Equilibrium and the reversibility of biochemical reactions eventually led Blum to state: The spontaneous formation of a polypeptide of the size of the smallest known proteins seems beyond all probability. This calculation alone presents serious objection to the idea that all living matter and systems are descended from a single protein molecule which was formed as a ‘chance’ act. In the 1970’s British astronomer Sir Frederick Hoyle set out to calculate the mathematical probability of the spontaneous origin of life from a primordial soup environment. Applying the laws of chemistry, mathematical probability and thermodynamics, he calculated the odds of the spontaneous generation of the simplest known free-living life form on earth – a bacterium. Hoyle and his associates knew that the smallest conceivable free-living life form needed at least 2,000 independent functional proteins in order to accomplish cellular metabolism and reproduction. Starting with the hypothetical primordial soup he calculated the probability of the spontaneous generation of just the proteins of a single amoebae. He determined that the probability of such an event is one chance in ten to the 40 thousandth power, i. . , 1 in 1040,000. Prior to this project, Hoyle was a believer in the spontaneous generation of life. This project, however, changed his opinion 180 degrees. Hoyle stated: The likelihood of the formation of life from inanimate matter is one to a number with 40 thousand naughts [zeros] after it. It is enough to bury Darwin and the whole theor y of evolution. There was no primeval soup, neither on this planet nor on any other, and if the beginnings of life were not random they must therefore have been the product of purposeful intelligence. Hoyle also concluded hat the probability of the spontaneous generation of a single bacteria, is about the same as the probability that a tornado sweeping through a junk yard could assemble a 747 from the contents therein. Hoyle’s calculations may seem impressive, but they don’t even begin to approximate the difficulty of the task. He only calculated the probability of the spontaneous generation of the proteins in the cell. He did not calculate the chance formation of the DNA, RNA, nor the cell wall that holds the contents of the cell together. Example 1 Consider this. The odds of winning a state lottery are about 1 chance in ten million. The odds of someone winning the state lottery every single week from age 18 to age 99 is 1 chance in 4. 6 x 1029,120. Therefore, the odds of winning the state lottery every week consecutively for eighty years is more likely than the spontaneous generation of just the proteins of an amoebae! A more detailed estimate for spontaneous generation has been made by Harold Morowitz, a Yale University physicist. Morowitz imagined a broth of living bacteria that was super-heated so that all the complex chemicals were broken down into their basic building blocks. After cooling the mixture, he concluded that the odds of a single bacterium re-assembling by chance is one in 10100,000,000,000. This number is so large that it would require several thousand books just to write it out. To put this number into perspective, it is more likely that an entire extended family would win the state lottery every week for a million years than for a bacterium to form by chance! Example 2 In his book, Origins–A Skeptics Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, Robert Shapiro gives a very realistic illustration of how one might estimate the odds of the spontaneous generation of life. Shapiro begins by allowing one billion years (5 x 1014 minutes) for spontaneous biogenesis. Next he notes that a simple bacterium can make a copy of itself in twenty minutes, but he assumes that the first life was much simpler. So he allows each trial assembly to last one minute, thus providing 5 x 1014 trial assemblies in 1 billion years to make a living bacterium. Next he allows the entire ocean to be used as the reaction chamber. If the entire ocean volume on planet earth were divided into reaction flasks the size of a bacterium we would have 1036 separate reaction flasks. He allows each reaction flask to be filled with all the necessary building blocks of life. Finally, each reaction chamber is allowed to proceed through one-minute trial assemblies for one billion years. The result is that there would be 1051 tries available in 1 billion years. According to Morowitz we need 10100,000,000,000 trial assemblies! Regarding the probabilities calculated by Morowitz, Robert Shapiro wrote: The improbability involved in generating even one bacterium is so large that it reduces all considerations of time and space to nothingness. Given such odds, the time until the black holes evaporate and the space to the ends of the universe would make no difference at all. If we were to wait, we would truly be waiting for a miracle. Regarding the origin of life, Francis Crick, winner of the Nobel Prize in biology, stated: An honest man, armed with all the knowledge available to us now, could only state that in some sense, the origin of life appears at the moment to be almost a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have had to have been satisfied to get it going. Regarding the probability of spontaneous generation, Harvard University biochemist and Nobel Laureate, George Wald stated: One has to only contemplate the magnitude of this task to concede that the spontaneous generation of a living organism is impossible. Yet we are here–as a result, I believe, of spontaneous generation. In this incredibly twisted statement, we see that Wald’s dogmatic adherence to the evolutionist’s paradigm is independent of the evidence. Wald’s belief in the impossible can only be explained by faith: †¦the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen. Despite these incredible odds and insurmountable problems, spontaneous generation is taught as a fact from grammar school to the university level. In fact, NASA reported to the press in 1991 their opinion that life arose spontaneously not once, but multiple times, because previous attempts were wiped out by cosmic catastrophes! Conclusion The overwhelming evidence is clear†¦spontaneous generation is an impossibility. It is a scientifically corrupt theory that, among other things, violates the Law of Biogenesis, which says that that life never arises except from life. Life simply cannot come from non-life. Since spontaneous generation is impossible, so then the foundation that evolution rests on has been shattered. Without spontaneous generation there can be no evolution. Despite scientific evidence to the contrary, however, there are those who continue to believe in evolution, and are therefore forced to accept and defend some form of spontaneous generation. The reason for this dogmatic adherence to spontaneous generation is eloquently pointed out by George Wald: When it comes to the origin of life there are only two possibilities: Creation or spontaneous generation. There is no third way. Spontaneous generation was disproved one hundred years ago, but that leads us to only one other conclusion, that of supernatural creation. We cannot accept that on philosophical grounds; therefore, we choose to believe the impossible: That life arose spontaneously by chance! According to Wald, it’s not about discovering the truth through the finding of fact, it’s not a matter of evidence, not a matter of science†¦it’s a matter of philosophy! Like George Wald, many people do not like the alternative: that all life on earth was created by God. So, as Wald said, they are willing to believe the impossible. Since the impossibility of spontaneous generation is a conclusion that leads to a supernatural creative act by God, it is a conclusion that many choose not to accept. It carries with it what are felt to be, in the present politically correct climate, undesirable philosophic and religious implications. It is for that unfortunate and illogical reason most scien tists continue to cling to the unscientific, disproved theory that life arose from non-life through spontaneous generation. Biogenesis is the law that living things come only from other living things, e. g. spider lays eggs, which develop into spiders. It may also refer to biochemical processes of production in living organisms. The biogenesis theory claims that all living things arise from living things. This theory of biogenesis is completely opposite from the spontaneous generation theory. In this article, we shall learn a bit about what is biogenesis theory. But before we go into the details of theory of biogenesis, let us understand the spontaneous theory of generation. Spontaneous Theory of Generation Long before 1900s, people believed that organisms could evolve from non living things. One of the early thinkers who believed that non-living things could spontaneously give rise to living things was Aristotle. For example, it was a common belief that logs gave rise to crocodiles, dirty sewers gave rise to rats, maggots came from dead bodies, wet soil lead to creation of toads, etc. This spontaneous theory of generation had a strong belief system among people over many centuries. What is Biogenesis Theory? An amateur microbiologist, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, observed small organisms in dirty water and some material he scrapped from his teeth. These organisms were called animalcules that we call as protozoans, today. This discovery took Europe by storm and scientists were thrilled to find these animalcules. The most pricking question in the minds of many was about the origin of these animalcules. This doubt had only one answer, spontaneous theory of generation. Over the years, many intelligent minds came up with theories that defied spontaneous generation theory. An Italian physician, Francesco Redi could prove in 1668 that life cannot evolve spontaneously. However, people who supported biogenesis did not think that Redis theory was applicable to microbes. Many other scientists continued their attempts to dissolve the pontaneous theory of generation. However, John Needham in 1745, added chicken broth to a flask and allowed it to cool. Then after few days, microbes did grow in the broth, and Needham proposed it a proof of spontaneous theory of generation. Needlam claimed that vital life is needed for spontaneous generation of animalcules. His claim was challenged by Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1768, wh o repeated the experiment in a sealed container. He found there was no growth in the container. Then, in 1858, Rudolf Virchow, a scientist challenged the spontaneous generation theory by proposing the theory of biogenesis. He stated, living cells can arise only from pre-existing living cells. This biogenesis theory partly explained the presence of animalcule under the microscope. However, without any concrete scientific evidence, Virchows biogenesis theory was not accepted by all. Louis Pasteur and Theory of Biogenesis Louis Pasteur was one of the most intelligent scientist of his time. He was the first to be able to prove the biogenesis theory. He proposed that the organisms that are not visible to the naked eye are present in air. However, he emphasized on the fact that air did not give rise to living things. He carried out an experiment that would dissolve the spontaneous theory of generation and prove the theory of biogenesis. In his experiment, Pasteur heated a number of short necked flasks that contained beef broth. After heating the flasks, he immediately sealed the mouths of some flasks and left a few unsealed. Then after a few days, microorganisms were observed in beef broth that was in flasks that were unsealed. The sealed flasks had no microorganisms present in the broth. This proved that the microorganisms were present in the air and could contaminate the beef broth without the seal. Now, to prove that air did not give rise to organisms, he demonstrated another experiment. He filled long-necked flasks with beef broth and the flasks were bent into S-shaped curves. These flasks were heated to kill any presence of life in the beef broth. Then he left the flasks as they were for a few days without sealing them. This way the air could reach the broth as it was not blocked. After a few days, Pasteur observed the beef broth and found no microorganisms in it. This showed that the air can access the broth, but the organisms are trapped in the S-shaped neck of the flask and thus are not able to reach it. You can read more on some interesting creation theories and learn about the human evolution. This simple and ingenious experiment was enough to break an age-old theory of spontaneous generation. The world could now understand the relevancy of biogenesis theory and that only a living thing can give rise to a living thing. Thus, the mystical belief of non living things giving rise to living things was shattered by a simple experiment by Louis Pasteur. In the end, the answer to the question what is biogenesis theory is that all living things will be created only from living things and no other process.